Further Reading:

• Brands, H. W. Woodrow Wilson. New York: Times Books, 2003.
• Cooper, John Milton. Breaking the Heart of the World. New York: Cambridge University Press, 2001.  The Warrior and the Priest: Woodrow Wilson and Theodore Roosevelt. Cambridge, Mass. Belknap Press, 1983.
• Knock, Thomas J. To End All Wars: Woodrow Wilson and the Quest for a New World Order. Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1995.

Further Reading:

• Brands, H. W. Woodrow Wilson. New York: Times Books, 2003.
• Cooper, John Milton. Breaking the Heart of the World. New York: Cambridge University Press, 2001. The Warrior and the Priest: Woodrow Wilson and Theodore Roosevelt. Cambridge, Mass. Belknap Press, 1983.
• Knock, Thomas J. To End All Wars: Woodrow Wilson and the Quest for a New World Order. Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1995.

Further Reading:

• Brands, H. W. Woodrow Wilson. New York: Times Books, 2003.
• Cooper, John Milton. Breaking the Heart of the World. New York: Cambridge University Press, 2001.  The Warrior and the Priest: Woodrow Wilson and Theodore Roosevelt. Cambridge, Mass. Belknap Press, 1983.
• Knock, Thomas J. To End All Wars: Woodrow Wilson and the Quest for a New World Order. Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1995.

Further Reading:

• Brands, H. W. Woodrow Wilson. New York: Times Books, 2003.
• Cooper, John Milton. Breaking the Heart of the World. New York: Cambridge University Press, 2001.  The Warrior and the Priest: Woodrow Wilson and Theodore Roosevelt. Cambridge, Mass. Belknap Press, 1983.
• Knock, Thomas J. To End All Wars: Woodrow Wilson and the Quest for a New World Order. Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1995.

Throughout the year, poor weather could hinder campaign progress. A well-known example was the Peninsula Campaign (1862), during which Union General George B. McClellan incessantly complained that rainy weather and swollen rivers impeded his advance toward the Confederate capital at Richmond. While the rising rivers did challenge McClellan’s engineers, weather in this case proved more of a convenient excuse than an interminable obstruction. United States president Abraham Lincoln became infuriated with McClellan and removed him from command by the end of the summer.

Further Reading

• Fagan, Brian M. The Little Ice Age: How Climate Made History, 1300–1850. New York: Basic Books, 2000.
• Krick, Robert K. Civil War Weather in Virginia. Tuscaloosa: University of Alabama Press, 2007.
• Winters, Harold A., et al. Battling the Elements: Weather and Terrain in the Conduct of War Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 2001.

Meteorologically, the Civil War took place at the tail end of what is often termed the “Little Ice Age,” a period of general cooling and unpredictability that most scholars date from roughly 1310 to 1850. Despite what its name suggests, the Little Ice Age actually encompassed dramatic fluctuations in weather, with one year bringing an intensely cold winter and easterly winds, and the next heavy rains and raging heat. On the whole, conditions began to warm after 1850, but during the war Virginia experienced extreme precipitation and alternate periods of blazing heat and bitter cold.

Further Reading

• Fagan, Brian M. The Little Ice Age: How Climate Made History, 1300–1850. New York: Basic Books, 2000
• Krick, Robert K. Civil War Weather in Virginia. Tuscaloosa: University of Alabama Press, 2007
• Winters, Harold A., et al. Battling the Elements: Weather and Terrain in the Conduct of War Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 2001

Further Reading

• Eisenhower, John S. D. Agent of Destiny, the Life and Times of General Winfield Scott. Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 1997
• Johnson, Timothy D. Winfield Scott, the Quest for Military Glory. Lawrence: University of Kansas Press, 1998
• Peskin, Allan. Winfield Scott and the Profession of Arms. Kent, Ohio: Kent State University Press, 2003
• Warner, Ezra J. Generals in Blue. Baton Rouge: Louisiana State University Press, 1984

Stuart cultivated himself as the epitome of Virginia’s mythical Cavalier, sporting a long beard and a plumed hat. He enjoyed staging elaborate reviews like the two near Brandy Station, Virginia, in June 1863. The day after the second review, Stuart’s troopers fended off a surprise attack in the largest cavalry battle of the war, but soon after, another long ride around the Union army failed, hampering Lee’s intelligence at the Battle of Gettysburg (1863). Stuart was wounded at the Battle of Yellow Tavern and died one day later on May 12, 1864.

Further Reading

• Davis, Burke. Jeb Stuart: The Last Cavalier. New York: Holt, Rinehart & Winston, 1957.
• Garnett, Theodore Stanford. Riding with Stuart: Reminiscences of an Aide-de-Camp. Edited by Robert J. Trout. Shippensburg, Pa.: White Mane Publishing Co., 1994.
• Thomas, Emory M. Bold Dragoon: The Life of J. E. B. Stuart. New York: Harper & Row, 1986.
• Wert, Jeffrey D. Cavalryman of the Lost Cause: A Biography of J. E. B. Stuart. New York: Simon & Schuster, 2009.

Further Reading

• DeLeon, Thomas Cooper. Four Years in Rebel Capitals: An Inside View of Life in the Southern Confederacy from Birth to Death, From Original Notes, Collated in the Years from 1861 to 1865. Reprint ed., Spartanburg, SC: The Reprint Co., 1975.
• Kimball, Gregg D. American City, Southern Place: A Cultural History of Antebellum Richmond. University of Georgia Press, 2003.
• Lankford, Nelson. Richmond Burning: The Last Days of the Confederate Capital. New York: Viking Press, 2002.

Further Reading

• Cavanaugh, Michael A., and William Marvel. The Petersburg Campaign: The Battle of the Crater, “The Horrid Pit,” June 25–August 6, 1864. Lynchburg, Va.: H. E. Howard, 1989.
• Slotkin, Richard. No Quarter: The Battle of the Crater, 1864. New York: Random House, 2009.